VALREXA PEPTIDE ENCYCLOPEDIA

Targets & pathway reference

Follow a peptide’s molecular partners and signaling relationships back to the exact compound and supporting publication.

Targets are the receptors, enzymes or other molecular partners described in the cited sources. A pathway is the sequence of events around an interaction. These entries preserve molecule-specific wording, including proposed or experimental actions; a source-backed interaction alone does not establish a treatment benefit.

Browse 111 target entries

11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1

Profile-specific evidence and context

Somatropin

The label states that somatropin inhibits this enzyme, which is involved in converting cortisone to cortisol in hepatic and adipose tissue. Read supporting source ↗

20S proteasome

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Carfilzomib

Carfilzomib irreversibly binds active sites of the 20S proteasome, the proteolytic core particle within the 26S proteasome. Read supporting source ↗

Actin

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Thymosin beta-4

The review describes a complex between Tβ4 and G-actin and proposes that dissociation of the complex makes actin available for filament assembly. Read supporting source ↗

Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor

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DSIP

A rat pineal in-vitro study concluded that DSIP modulates this receptor's response to adrenergic agonists; the supplied sources do not establish it as a definitive DSIP receptor. Read supporting source ↗

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)

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MOTS-c

The review describes AMPK activation as part of MOTS-c signaling and says AMPK activity is required for stress-associated nuclear translocation of MOTS-c; it does not establish AMPK as a direct binding target. Read supporting source ↗

Amylin 1 receptor

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Eloralintide

Eloralintide activated the human receptor in cell assays and was more potent there than at the human calcitonin receptor or amylin 3 receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Amylin 3 receptor

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Eloralintide

Eloralintide activated this human receptor in cell assays, with lower potency than at the human amylin 1 receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Amylin receptor 1

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Cagrilintide

The mouse study found that this receptor subtype contributes to cagrilintide-associated weight loss and neuronal activation; it does not establish this role in humans. Read supporting source ↗

Amylin receptor 3

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Cagrilintide

The mouse study found that this receptor subtype contributes to cagrilintide-associated weight loss and neuronal activation; it does not establish this role in humans. Read supporting source ↗

Amylin receptors

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Pramlintide

The review states that pramlintide binds amylin receptors and acts as an agonist; it does not specify a particular receptor subtype for this drug. Read supporting source ↗

Bacterial cell membrane

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Colistimethate sodium

The product label states that colistimethate sodium penetrates into and disrupts the bacterial cell membrane. Read supporting source ↗

Daptomycin

The described action includes binding to susceptible bacterial membranes and rapidly depolarizing membrane potential. Read supporting source ↗

Bacterial cell-wall peptidoglycan

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Dalbavancin

The label connects dalbavancin binding to nascent peptidoglycan with prevention of cell-wall cross-linking. Read supporting source ↗

Bacterial membrane

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Dalbavancin

The review proposes that dalbavancin can dimerize and anchor its lipophilic side chain in bacterial membranes; it presents the increased target affinity as a hypothesis. Read supporting source ↗

Oritavancin

The label characterizes disruption of bacterial membrane integrity as one of oritavancin’s mechanisms of action. Read supporting source ↗

Telavancin

Telavancin binds bacterial membranes and alters membrane potential and permeability. Read supporting source ↗

Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX)

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Humanin

Humanin binds BAX; the review describes this interaction in relation to apoptosis regulation. Read supporting source ↗

Bim

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Humanin

Humanin binds Bim; the review describes this interaction in relation to apoptosis regulation. Read supporting source ↗

Bradykinin B2 receptor

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Icatibant

Icatibant is a competitive, selective antagonist of this receptor and inhibits bradykinin from binding to it. Read supporting source ↗

Calcitonin receptor

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Cagrilintide

The article reports cagrilintide activity at the calcitonin receptor in laboratory receptor assays. The supplied evidence does not establish how much this activity contributes to effects in humans. Read supporting source ↗

Calcitonin

The source identifies this G protein-coupled receptor as the route through which calcitonin signals, including via cAMP and PLC/IP3 pathways. Read supporting source ↗

Eloralintide

Eloralintide activated this human receptor in cell assays, with lower potency than at the human amylin 1 receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Calcium ions

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P11-4

The assembled peptide scaffold is described as attracting calcium ions, which can contribute to hydroxyapatite precipitation. Read supporting source ↗

Carbonic anhydrase II

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Calcitonin

The source states that calcitonin inhibits this enzyme, disrupting the acidic environment needed for osteoclast activity. Read supporting source ↗

Cardiolipin

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SS-31 (Elamipretide)

The review identifies cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane as the molecule elamipretide binds. Read supporting source ↗

Casein kinase 2 (CK2)

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MOTS-c

A 2026 study's introduction describes exogenous MOTS-c as binding to and activating CK2. This is a reported interaction, not evidence in the supplied material of a clinical effect. Read supporting source ↗

CCTβ subunit

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CT20p

The study reports direct binding between CT20p and the CCTβ subunit in a recombinant-protein experiment. It does not fully establish the details of how that binding inhibits CCT. Read supporting source ↗

CCT/TRiC complex

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CT20p

Identified in the breast-cancer study as an intracellular target associated with CT20p; the authors propose that CT20p inhibits the chaperonin, a protein-folding complex. Read supporting source ↗

CD36

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GHRP-6

The article describes GHRP-6 as interacting with CD36; the supplied text does not settle how much this interaction mediates its effects. Read supporting source ↗

Cell-wall peptide bridging segments

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Oritavancin

Oritavancin binds these segments and inhibits the crosslinking step of bacterial cell-wall biosynthesis. Read supporting source ↗

Copper(II) ion

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GHK-Cu

GHK is reported to bind copper(II) and form the GHK-Cu complex; this is a characterized binding interaction, not evidence of a cellular receptor. Read supporting source ↗

CXCR7

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SHLP2

The 2023 study reports SHLP2 binding to CXCR7 and inducing beta-arrestin recruitment in cell-based assays; it proposes CXCR7 as a receptor mediating SHLP2 effects. The article also says further investigation is needed to establish the mechanism fully. Read supporting source ↗

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

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Linaclotide

The label identifies this ion channel as a main route through which increased intracellular cGMP promotes chloride and bicarbonate secretion into the intestinal lumen. Read supporting source ↗

D-alanyl-D-alanine

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Vancomycin

The reference says vancomycin binds this bacterial cell-wall building-block feature. Read supporting source ↗

D-alanyl-D-alanine terminus

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Dalbavancin

Dalbavancin binds this terminus on the stem of nascent bacterial cell-wall peptidoglycan, preventing cross-linking. Read supporting source ↗

Fc gamma receptor

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Romiplostim

A possible interaction through romiplostim’s Fc region is discussed, but the review says its effects are much less known; this is not presented as a characterized target. Read supporting source ↗

Formyl peptide receptor-like 1 (FPRL1)

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Humanin

The review identifies FPRL1 as a cell-surface receptor for secreted humanin. Read supporting source ↗

GABA-A receptor

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Selank

Proposed mechanism, not an established direct target: the article discusses possible allosteric modulation of this receptor and presents gene-expression findings as consistent with that hypothesis. Read supporting source ↗

Galectin-1

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Thymosin alpha-1

The 2025 review reports that Tα1 binds galectin-1 and modulates its biological activity; it does not identify galectin-1 as a specific cell-surface receptor for Tα1. Read supporting source ↗

Ghrelin receptor

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Ipamorelin

FDA identifies ghrelin receptors as activated by ipamorelin; the cited passage locates them in the hypothalamus and on pituitary somatotrophs. Read supporting source ↗

GHRH receptor

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CJC-1295

The FDA presents down-regulation of GHRH receptors in the anterior pituitary as one possible explanation for declining growth-hormone-secretagogue activity after CJC-1295 DAC exposure in rats; it does not establish this as a confirmed target mechanism for all CJC-1295 forms. Read supporting source ↗

Sermorelin

Sermorelin binds to and activates the GHRH receptor, stimulating GH secretion. Read supporting source ↗

GIP receptor

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Retatrutide

In human-receptor cyclic adenosine monophosphate assays, retatrutide was more potent than native GIP at this receptor; the reported comparison is specific to that assay. Read supporting source ↗

Tirzepatide

One of the two receptors that tirzepatide selectively binds and activates. Read supporting source ↗

GLP-1 receptor

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Albiglutide

Albiglutide is described as an agonist of this receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Dulaglutide

Dulaglutide activates this cell-surface receptor; the label locates the receptor in pancreatic beta cells and links its activation to cyclic AMP and glucose-dependent insulin release. Read supporting source ↗

Exenatide

The label reports that exenatide binds and activates this known human receptor in vitro. Read supporting source ↗

Liraglutide

Liraglutide activates this receptor; the label connects receptor activation to cyclic AMP signaling in pancreatic beta cells. Read supporting source ↗

Lixisenatide

The label identifies lixisenatide as an agonist of this receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Retatrutide

In human-receptor cyclic adenosine monophosphate assays, retatrutide had lower potency than native GLP-1 at this receptor; the review cautions that such relative values are not tissue receptor occupancy. Read supporting source ↗

Semaglutide GLP-1 receptor agonist

Semaglutide is described as an agonist of this receptor; activation is linked in the sources to insulin secretion, glucagon suppression, and delayed gastric emptying. Read supporting source ↗

Tirzepatide

One of the two receptors that tirzepatide selectively binds and activates. Read supporting source ↗

GLP-2 receptor

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Teduglutide

Teduglutide binds this receptor; the label says its activation results in local release of mediators including IGF-1, nitric oxide, and keratinocyte growth factor. Read supporting source ↗

Glucagon receptor

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Retatrutide

In human-receptor cyclic adenosine monophosphate assays, retatrutide had lower potency than native glucagon at this receptor; the review cautions that such relative values are not tissue receptor occupancy. Read supporting source ↗

Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor

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Eptifibatide

Eptifibatide reversibly inhibits platelet aggregation by preventing fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor, and other adhesive ligands from binding to this receptor. Read supporting source ↗

GnRH receptor

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Degarelix

Degarelix binds reversibly to pituitary GnRH receptors; the label connects this to reduced gonadotropin release and, consequently, reduced testosterone. Read supporting source ↗

Ganirelix

Ganirelix competitively blocks this receptor on pituitary gonadotroph cells. Read supporting source ↗

Goserelin

The review identifies pituitary GnRH receptor desensitization as part of goserelin’s established mechanism of action. Read supporting source ↗

Leuprolide

The supplied review describes sustained leuprolide exposure as causing downregulation and desensitization of pituitary GnRH receptors. Read supporting source ↗

Nafarelin

A review proposes desensitization of pituitary GnRH receptors as nafarelin’s mechanism; the supplied sources do not characterize receptor binding or establish this mechanism directly. Read supporting source ↗

Triptorelin

Triptorelin is described as an agonist of this receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor

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Gonadorelin

PubChem describes gonadorelin binding to transmembrane LHRH receptors on pituitary gonadotroph cells, stimulating gonadotropin synthesis and secretion. Read supporting source ↗

Growth hormone receptor

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Somatropin

Somatropin exerts its influence in part through interaction with growth hormone receptors on several cell types. Read supporting source ↗

Growth hormone-releasing factor receptor

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Tesamorelin

Tesamorelin binds and stimulates human GRF receptors in vitro; the label compares its potency with endogenous GRF. Read supporting source ↗

Growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a

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Hexarelin

The source identifies this receptor as the binding site through which hexarelin stimulates growth-hormone release. Read supporting source ↗

Growth hormone secretagogue receptor type 1a

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GHRP-6

The review identifies GHRP-6 as an agonist of this receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Guanylate cyclase-C

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Linaclotide

Linaclotide and its active metabolite bind to and activate this receptor on the luminal surface of the intestinal epithelium. Read supporting source ↗

Guanylate cyclase-C (GC-C)

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Plecanatide

Plecanatide and its active metabolite bind to and activate GC-C. Read supporting source ↗

Histone deacetylases

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Romidepsin

Romidepsin is described as an inhibitor of these enzymes, which remove acetyl groups from histones and also deacetylate non-histone proteins. Read supporting source ↗

HIV-1 gp41 HR1 domain

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Enfuvirtide

Enfuvirtide binds the first heptad-repeat region of the HIV-1 envelope protein gp41, preventing the conformational changes needed for viral and cellular membrane fusion. Read supporting source ↗

Hydroxyapatite

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P11-4

P11-4 is described as having affinity for hydroxyapatite and potential to nucleate its formation; the source presents this as a material interaction, not a receptor-mediated target. Read supporting source ↗

Importin-α3

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KPV

KPV suppressed importin-α3 binding to NF-κB p65 in an in-vitro competition assay. The article proposes an interaction but does not demonstrate direct KPV binding to importin-α3 in vivo. Read supporting source ↗

Innate repair receptor (EPO receptor/CD131 complex)

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ARA-290 / Cibinetide

The article associates cibinetide with innate repair receptor signaling, but the supplied text does not directly establish peptide binding to the receptor complex. Read supporting source ↗

Insulin receptor

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Insulin aspart

Insulin aspart’s glucose-lowering effect is described as involving insulin binding to receptors on muscle and fat cells. Read supporting source ↗

Insulin degludec

Degludec monomers bind insulin receptors on target cells, as insulin does. Read supporting source ↗

Insulin detemir

Insulin detemir acts through binding to insulin receptors; receptor-bound insulin supports glucose uptake in muscle and fat and inhibits glucose output from the liver. Read supporting source ↗

Insulin glulisine

The review describes insulin-receptor-mediated effects as part of glulisine's action; it reports receptor association, dissociation, and binding affinity comparable to regular human insulin. Read supporting source ↗

Insulin lispro

Insulin lispro binds an insulin-specific receptor on target cells. Read supporting source ↗

Integrin-linked kinase

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Thymosin beta-4

The review reports that Tβ4 binds integrin-linked kinase in lamellipodia, linking this interaction to Akt2 activation and metalloproteinase production. Read supporting source ↗

Kallikrein

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Aprotinin

The FDA label identifies kallikrein as a mediator inhibited by aprotinin. Read supporting source ↗

Kisspeptin receptor (GPR-54)

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Kisspeptin-10

The FDA identifies GPR-54 as the receptor that natural and synthetic kisspeptin-10 bind to and activate. Read supporting source ↗

Leptin receptor

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Metreleptin

Metreleptin binds to and activates the human leptin receptor; the receptor signals through the JAK/STAT pathway. Read supporting source ↗

Lipid II

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Daptomycin

The source describes evidence suggesting daptomycin forms a tripartite complex involving lipid II and phosphatidylglycerol; this is not presented as an established exclusive target. Read supporting source ↗

Telavancin

A late-stage bacterial peptidoglycan precursor that telavancin binds, thereby inhibiting cell-wall biosynthesis. Read supporting source ↗

Lipopolysaccharide

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Polymyxin B

The review describes electrostatic interaction with lipopolysaccharide in the outer membrane as part of polymyxin B’s antibacterial action. Read supporting source ↗

MC3 receptor

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Setmelanotide

The label reports that setmelanotide has less activity at this receptor than at MC4; it does not characterize a specific role for this activity. Read supporting source ↗

MC4 receptor

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Setmelanotide

Setmelanotide is an agonist at this receptor; the label connects brain MC4 receptors with regulation of hunger, satiety, and energy expenditure. Read supporting source ↗

Melanocortin 2 receptor

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Corticotropin

ACTH activates this receptor; the cited source connects that activation to trophic effects on the adrenal cortex. Read supporting source ↗

Cosyntropin

Cosyntropin binds this receptor on adrenal cortex cells and thereby stimulates cortisol synthesis and secretion. Read supporting source ↗

Melanocortin 3 receptor

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Bremelanotide

The label includes MC3R among the receptor subtypes nonselectively activated by bremelanotide. Read supporting source ↗

Melanocortin 4 receptor

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Bremelanotide

The label identifies MC4R as one of the receptor subtypes most relevant to binding at therapeutic levels and says MC4R-expressing neurons occur in many central nervous system areas. It does not establish MC4R as the mechanism of HSDD improvement. Read supporting source ↗

Melanocortin receptor

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Melanotan II

The source characterizes melanotan II as an agonist of melanocortin receptors, without naming a subtype. Read supporting source ↗

N-type voltage-gated calcium channel

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Ziconotide

Ziconotide blocks these neuronal channels; the source connects the blockade to reduced neurotransmitter release from pain-sensing afferents in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Read supporting source ↗

NAD+ glycohydrolases

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NAD+

Listed as NAD+-consuming enzymes that degrade NAD+. Read supporting source ↗

Neurokinin-1 receptor

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Substance P

Substance P acts through this receptor and has greater affinity for it than for NK2 or NK3 receptors. Read supporting source ↗

Neurokinin-2 receptor

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Substance P

Identified as one of the neurokinin receptors through which substance P acts; the source reports lower substance P affinity than for NK1R. Read supporting source ↗

Neurokinin-3 receptor

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Substance P

Identified as one of the neurokinin receptors through which substance P acts; the source reports lower substance P affinity than for NK1R. Read supporting source ↗

NF-κB p65 subunit

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KPV

KPV was associated with inhibited nuclear translocation of p65RelA and competitively disrupted its interaction with importin-α3 in the reported experiments. Read supporting source ↗

Nitric oxide synthase

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BPC-157

A review describes interaction with the nitric oxide system and proposes nitric oxide synthase as a molecular target; the FDA evaluation states that BPC-157 molecular targets and mechanisms remain unidentified. Read supporting source ↗

Organic anion transporting polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1)

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Bulevirtide

In vitro, bulevirtide inhibits OATP1B1; the label says a clinical drug interaction is not expected at clinically relevant concentrations. Read supporting source ↗

Organic anion transporting polypeptide 1B3 (OATP1B3)

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Bulevirtide

In vitro, bulevirtide inhibits OATP1B3; the label says a clinical drug interaction is not expected at clinically relevant concentrations. Read supporting source ↗

PAC1 receptor

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PACAP-38

The review identifies PAC1 as a receptor that binds PACAP-27 and PACAP-38 with high affinity and is selective for PACAP. Read supporting source ↗

Parathyroid hormone 1 receptor

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Teriparatide

Teriparatide binds this cell-surface receptor through its N-terminal portion. Read supporting source ↗

Particulate guanylate cyclase receptor

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Nesiritide

Human BNP binding to this receptor is linked to increased intracellular cyclic GMP and smooth-muscle relaxation in vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells. Read supporting source ↗

PEPT1 transporter

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KPV

Reported transporter for KPV uptake into epithelial cells; the article states that this uptake is necessary for anti-inflammatory effects. Read supporting source ↗

Peptidoglycan precursor stem peptide

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Oritavancin

Oritavancin binds this bacterial cell-wall precursor component and inhibits the polymerization step of cell-wall biosynthesis. Read supporting source ↗

Phosphatidylglycerol

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Daptomycin

The review says initial membrane binding is not defined, but may involve phosphatidylglycerol; another source describes it as a component of a proposed tripartite complex. Read supporting source ↗

Plasma kallikrein

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Ecallantide

Ecallantide binds plasma kallikrein and inhibits it reversibly, blocking its binding site and reducing conversion of high-molecular-weight kininogen to bradykinin. Read supporting source ↗

Plasmin

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Aprotinin

The FDA label identifies plasmin as a mediator inhibited by aprotinin. Read supporting source ↗

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases

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NAD+

The source identifies PARPs as NAD+-consuming enzymes that degrade NAD+. Read supporting source ↗

PPAR-γ

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Hexarelin

The mouse-study authors propose PPAR-γ activation as part of a possible mechanism downstream of hexarelin; the cited passage does not establish direct binding of hexarelin to PPAR-γ. Read supporting source ↗

PTH-1 receptor

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Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

The product label states that a small amount of parathyroid hormone binds to physiological PTH-1 receptors in the kidney during clearance. Read supporting source ↗

PTH1 receptor

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Abaloparatide

Abaloparatide acts as an agonist at this receptor, activating cAMP signaling in target cells. Read supporting source ↗

Secretin receptor

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Secretin

The label identifies this as the receptor secretin binds on pancreatic duct cells. Read supporting source ↗

Sirtuins

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NAD+

Listed as NAD+-consuming enzymes that degrade NAD+. Read supporting source ↗

Sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP)

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Bulevirtide

Bulevirtide binds NTCP on hepatocytes and blocks HDV attachment; the label identifies it as the HDV receptor and the drug’s intended target. Read supporting source ↗

Somatostatin receptor 1

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Lanreotide

The label reports reduced binding affinity for this receptor, rather than high affinity. Read supporting source ↗

Pasireotide

The label reports pasireotide binding affinity for this receptor subtype. Read supporting source ↗

Somatostatin receptor 2

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Lanreotide

Lanreotide has high binding affinity for this receptor; the label identifies activity at receptor types 2 and 5 as the primary mechanism believed responsible for growth hormone inhibition. Read supporting source ↗

Pasireotide

The label reports pasireotide binding affinity for this receptor subtype. Read supporting source ↗

Somatostatin receptor 5

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Lanreotide

Pasireotide

The label reports pasireotide binding affinity for this receptor subtype. Read supporting source ↗

Thrombin

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Bivalirudin

Bivalirudin directly and reversibly inhibits thrombin by binding its catalytic site and anion-binding exosite. Read supporting source ↗

Desirudin

Desirudin directly and selectively inhibits free circulating and clot-bound thrombin. Read supporting source ↗

Thrombopoietin receptor

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Romiplostim

Characterized target: romiplostim binds to and activates this receptor. Read supporting source ↗

Toll-like receptor 2

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Thymosin alpha-1

The 2020 review reports thymosin alpha-1 as a TLR-2 agonist in myeloid and dendritic cells. The 2025 review states that specific receptors have not been identified, leaving the precise receptor relationship unresolved. Read supporting source ↗

Toll-like receptor 7

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LL-37

The review reports that LL-37–self-RNA complexes can lead to TLR7 activation in plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Read supporting source ↗

Toll-like receptor 8

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LL-37

The review reports that LL-37–self-RNA complexes can lead to TLR8 activation in myeloid dendritic cells. Read supporting source ↗

Toll-like receptor 9

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LL-37

The review describes LL-37–DNA complexes as enabling TLR9 activation in plasmacytoid dendritic cells in the proposed psoriasis mechanism. Read supporting source ↗

Thymosin alpha-1

The 2020 review reports thymosin alpha-1 as a TLR-9 agonist in myeloid and dendritic cells. The 2025 review cautions that specific receptors for Tα1 have not been identified, so this reported signaling association should not be read as a settled direct receptor identity. Read supporting source ↗

Type 1 IGF-1 receptor

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Mecasermin

The label states that IGF-1 activates this receptor, leading to intracellular signaling associated with statural growth. Read supporting source ↗

V1 receptor

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Vasopressin

The label identifies V1 receptors on vascular smooth muscle as mediating vasoconstriction through a signaling pathway that releases intracellular calcium. Read supporting source ↗

V3 receptor

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Vasopressin

The label connects V3 receptors to release of prolactin and ACTH at pressor doses. Read supporting source ↗

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2

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BPC-157

A review links BPC-157's reported pro-angiogenic effect to stimulation of this receptor. This is a proposed connection, not an established clinical target. Read supporting source ↗

Vasopressin V1 receptor

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Terlipressin

The label reports greater terlipressin selectivity for V1 receptors than for V2 receptors. Read supporting source ↗

Vasopressin V2 receptor

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Desmopressin

Desmopressin activates this receptor; the label connects its activation to increased kidney water reabsorption and reduced urine production. Read supporting source ↗

Terlipressin

V2 receptors are identified as a comparison receptor class in the label’s statement of terlipressin’s relative selectivity. Read supporting source ↗

VPAC1 receptor

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PACAP-38

The review lists VPAC1 among the G-protein-coupled receptors to which PACAP binds. Read supporting source ↗

VPAC2 receptor

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PACAP-38

The review lists VPAC2 among the G-protein-coupled receptors to which PACAP binds. Read supporting source ↗

Y1 receptor

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Neuropeptide Y

The source identifies Y1 as one receptor mediating NPY effects and says its activation is most consistently associated with anxiolytic effects in animals. Read supporting source ↗

Y2 receptor

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Neuropeptide Y

The source lists Y2 among the receptors mediating NPY effects but does not specify a distinct Y2 role in the excerpt. Read supporting source ↗

Y4 receptor

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Neuropeptide Y

The source lists Y4 among the receptors mediating NPY effects but does not specify a distinct Y4 role in the excerpt. Read supporting source ↗

Educational reference, not medical advice. A biological connection is not proof of clinical benefit. Editorial additions dated November 11, 2026; this is not an independent expert-review date.